Qantas joins the jet age – Part 2

The decision to purchase the 707 was made in September 1956 after the evaluation of competing aircraft. The short bodied 707-138 with a length of 128 ft 10 in (39.27 m), certified with a 13,000-pound (57.82kN) thrust rating, provided a full 28,000-pound (12,701 kg) payload. With a planned runway extension at Nadi, this meant this payload could be carried over the entire Southern Cross route. The 707-138 is powered by four Pratt & Whitney JT3C-6 turbojet engines developed from the military J57 engine. The thrust rating of 12,500 pounds (55.6 kN) was proposed for the civil engine with provision for water injection to increase thrust for take-off.

An integral 450 US gal (1,703 lt) capacity water tank is located in the keel beam between the two wheel wells. In addition, there are 140 US gal (530 lt) tanks aft of each wheel well connected to the main tank. Two submerged AC electrically driven water boost pumps located in the main tank deliver water under pressure to gear driven water pumps on the lower right side of each engine. The main instrument panel has arming switches for water injection, controlled by thrust lever action through a microswitch in the fuel control unit. The tanks containing water for fuel injection are consumed at a rate of 320 gal/min (1,211 lt/min) providing just over two minutes at full flow. The use of the water injection resulted in a black plume emitted from the engines on take-off.

The Qantas 707-138 JT3C-6 engines each develop 11,200 pounds (49.81 kN) of thrust dry and 13,000 pounds (57.82 kN) wet. The aircraft has a gross taxi weight of 248,000 pounds (112,493 kg), a take-off weight of 247,000 (112,039 kg) and landing weight of 175,000 pounds (79,380 kg). Fuel is located in several tanks with a total capacity of 14,500 gal (65,918 lt).

Dimensions of the 707-138 are wingspan 130 ft 10 in (39.88 m); fuselage length 128 ft 10 in (39.27 m); tail fin height 38 ft 7 in (11.76 m); fuselage width 12 ft 4 in (3.76 m); cruising speed 550mph (885km/h); and cruising altitude 25,000–40,000 ft (7620-12,192 m). Normal passenger capacity 28 First and 54 Tourist or 120 Tourist.

The reduction in the length of the 707-138 to meet Qantas’s needs, compared to a standard 707-100, was accomplished by removing a 10 ft (3.05 m) section aft of the wing. The modification altered the aerodynamic characteristics of the aircraft requiring extensive testing under US registration prior to certification under the 707-100 Type Certificate. The 707-138 was not added to the 707-100 Type certificate, but rather expressed as the 707 Short Body.

This saw the Certificate identify the other 707-100s on it as Long Body 707-100s. This model also introduced a new feature with the availability of the engine ferry pod — a streamlined container suspended under the port wing located between the fuselage and number 2 engine.

On 15 March 1960, Qantas received approval to order three 707-138Bs and modify its existing 707-138s to 707-138B standard at a cost of £20,500,000. A further three 707-138Bs were later purchased taking the fleet total to 13, (seven upgraded 707-138 to 707-138B standard and six new 707-138Bs).

The upgrading of the 707-138s to 707-138B standard took place between July and November 1961 when all seven aircraft were returned to Boeing for extensive changes. Overall length was increased to 135 ft 1 in (41.2 m); tail fin height to 41 ft 8 in (12.71 m); empty weight increased from 110,600 pounds (50,210 kg) to 114,900 pounds (52,165 kg); and gross weight went from 247,000 pounds (112,140 kg) to 257,000 pounds (116,680 kg).

External changes saw leading edge flaps, the rear ventral fin and the horizontal tailplane extended by 1 ft 8 in (0.51 m) on each side and a height extension of the vertical fin. The overall length increase is the result of the overhanging of the tailplane modifications, while actual fuselage length from radome and tailcone tips was unchanged. The conversion and reinstallation of Qantas’s 29 JT3C-6 engines to 17,000 pounds (75.62 kN) JT3D-1 turbofan standard was carried out by American Airlines.

The modifications delivered enhanced performance in the form of a cruising speed increase from 478kt (885km/h) to 521kt (965km/h), a fuel consumption decrease of 10% and airfield characteristic improvement without previously imposed runway restrictions with runway length reduced by 2,000 ft (610 m) for a similar load.

In further recognition of the changes, a new colour scheme was later adopted which gave prominence to V-JET on the tail, with that term based of the Latin word “vannus” (fan).

Qantas’s new 707-138B VH-EBH City of Darwin arrived in Sydney on 6 August 1961 at the end of a record-breaking non-stop flight from Honolulu covering the 4,505nm (8,345km) in 9 hours and 45 minutes — the first such flight between the two.

The first service by a 707-138B was flown on 24 September 1961 from Sydney to San Francisco. On 13 November, VH-EBG City of Hobart flew the last commercial 707-138 flight from Sydney to San Francisco and continued to Seattle for conversion to 707-138B standard.

The 707s, as Qantas’s flagship, were gradually placed on other services — some examples being Sydney-Hong Kong-Tokyo in November 1961, Sydney-Noumea the following month, Sydney-Christchurch in April 1965 and Sydney-Port Moresby-Manila-Hong Kong from 1966. In the years ahead they were widely employed on many other routes.

That initial Qantas 707 experience progressed to larger Boeing aircraft in the decades ahead. With the larger 707-338C joining the fleet, the 707-138Bs were phased out between 1967 and 1969 and found a ready market joining a variety of operators around the world. The most numerous sales to an individual operator were of VH-EBB, VH-EBC, VH-EBE and VH-EBF to Standard Airways; VH-EBI, VH-EBJ, VH-EBL and VH-EBM to Braniff International Airways; VH-EBD and VH-EBG to British Eagle; VH-EBH and VH-EBK to British West Indian Airways and VH-EBA to Pacific Western Airlines.

Two noteworthy examples still exist. VH-EBA, in its new registration of VH-XBA, is now at the Qantas Founders Museum in Longreach. After passing through several owners, it was restored and flown to the museum in June 2007. The other survivor, the former VH-EBM, was acquired by aviation enthusiast and identity John Travolta in 1998 registered N707XX and dubbed Jet Clipper Ella. In June 2002 the aircraft was repainted in full V-JET colours and used for some time in Qantas marketing campaigns with Travolta appointed an ambassador for Qantas. In 2017, Travolta announced the donation of the aircraft to the Historical Aircraft Restoration Society (HARS) in Albion Park. The aircraft requires work for a restoration to flying condition, and future arrival to its new home.

This first Qantas experience with Boeing has cemented a relationship which continues to this day. Matters have changed dramatically since the vision of long-distance, high-capacity airliners was the domain of four-engine aircraft. It was accepted for decades that was the preferred option. Enter the new generation of more powerful, low emission, much quieter, more fuel-efficient engines which have seen the emergence of the big twins from both Boeing and Airbus. These aircraft now dominate long distance travel, offering route lengths beyond that of their four-engine predecessors. Although somewhat smaller in capacity, they offer an irresistible opportunity for today’s airlines.

The Qantas 787 fleet is a typical example of what can now be achieved on long-distance services. Supported by large numbers of 737 aircraft on both domestic and some international destinations, the number of Boeing airliners in the Qantas fleet continues the Boeing connection established by the 707-138 in the 1950s.

Qantas 707-138/707-138B fleet list

Reg Constructors Name
Number

707-138
VH-EBA 17686 – City of Canberra, later City of Melbourne
VH-EBB 17697 – City of Sydney
VH-EBC 17698 – City of Melbourne, later City of Canberra
VH-EBD 17699  – City of Brisbane
VH-EBE 17700 – City of Perth
VH-EBF 17701 – City of Adelaide
VH-EBG 17702 – City of Hobart

707-138B
VH-EBH 18607 – City of Darwin
VH-EBI 18068 – Winton
VH-EBJ 18069 – Longreach
VH-EBK 18334 – City of Newcastle
VH-EBL 18739 – City of Geelong
VH-EBM 18740 – City of Launceston

Note: VH-EBA to VH-EBG modified to 707-138B

The large complex piston engines

The events of World War II dramatically increased the need for more powerful engines for military applications, particularly in US heavy bombers and large transport aircraft. In the end, these engines came too late to contribute to the war effort but made their mark in the post-war era.

The two engines put into service were either the Pratt & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major 3,500 hp (2,610 kW) nicknamed “corn cob” because of its shape, or the Wright R-3350 Turbo-Cyclone 18 which developed 3,250 hp (2,424 kW) at 2900 rpm. Both engines were used in a variety of civil and military aircraft. The cubic capacity of the R-4360 was 4360 cubic inches (71.45 lt) and the Wright R-3350 was 3350 cubic inches (54.9 lt). Both represented the limit of large piston engine developments but, unfortunately, reliability issues emerged and caused headaches for civil and military operators.

The Wasp Major had 28 cylinders in four banks of seven cylinders and was installed in several types of military and civil aircraft, including the test bed development of the Boeing B-29 (redesignated as the XB-44 with initial orders placed to be known as the B-29D, which were then cancelled and reinstated as the B-50A with a first flight on 25 June 1947. This aircraft featured many changes due to the 59% power increase from the original 2200 hp [1641 kW] Wright R-3350 twin-row radial engine).

Other aircraft powered by this engine were the Convair B-36, Boeing C-97 and Douglas DC-7. Engine dimensions and power output varied with the aircraft and ranged between 3,000–4,300 hp (2,237–3,207 kW), 2,700–2,800 rpm and a weight of 3,325–4,040 pounds (1,508-1,833 kg), bore was 5.75 in (14.6 cm) stroke 6.0 in (15.2 cm). The first engine run took place in April 1941 for first flight in May 1942. Production quantity totalled 18,679 engines.

The Boeing 377 Stratocruiser was a commercial development of the military C-97 powered by four Pratt & Whitney Wasp Major engines developing 3,500 hp (2,610 kW) for take-off. The heritage of this family of aircraft is based on developments from the B-29 Superfortress bomber. The lower lobe had the same diameter of the B-29 while the greater diameter upper lobe in the military C-97 could accommodate 134 fully equipped troops, three loaded 1.5-tonne trucks or two light tanks in its 74 ft (22.56 m) length.

The first prototype flew on 9 November 1944. The civil Model 377 Stratocruiser was based on the military YC-97B with similar passenger accommodation, window arrangements and entry doors. The main passenger cabin could seat 55–100 passengers depending on seating density and arrangement. When configured as a sleeper aircraft there were 28 upper and lower berth units plus five seats. A spiral staircase led to a lower deck lounge seating a further 14 passengers. Dressing rooms were provided for both men and women with the most complete galley yet installed in a commercial airliner at the cabin rear.

Flight crew consisted of pilot, co-pilot, navigator, engineer and radio operator with cabin crew numbers varying depending on configuration. The first flight of the Boeing 377-10-19 prototype Stratocruiser took place on 8 July 1947. In terms of passenger facilities and comfort, the aircraft offered facilities ahead of its time.

A total of 55 377s were built. Pan American World Airways (PAA) became largest operator with an initial order placed for 20 Model 377-10-26 aircraft, which later increased to 29 aircraft in subsequent acquisitions. Ten 377-10-26 PAA aircraft of their Atlantic division were modified to Super Stratocruisers with the original 7,790-gal (29,488 lt) fuel capacity increased by 450 gal (1,703 lt) of fuel to enable non-stop flights from New York to London or Paris.

Some of the other 377 operators were BOAC, United Airlines, Northwest Airlines, Scandinavian Airlines System and Transocean Airlines. The wingspan was 141 ft 3 in (43.05 m); fuselage length 110 ft 3 in (33.6 m); height 38 ft 3 in (11.66 m) [8.1 m with fin folded]; empty weight 78,920 pounds (35,798 m); gross weight 135,000 pounds (61,234 kg) [later 148,000 pounds (67,133 kg]; cruising speed 340mph (547km/h) at 1,900 hp (1,417 kW) per engine at 25,000 ft (7,620 m); initial climb 1,040 ft/min (317 m/min); service ceiling 32,000 ft (9,754 m); and a range of 4,200 miles (6,759km) with maximum fuel.

The Lockheed L-1049 Super Constellation was built in much greater numbers with 510 civil versions built with a further 346 military derivatives. The most successful civil version was the Model L-1049G, first flown on 7 December 1954, powered by the 3,400 hp (2,535 kW) Wright 972TC-18DA-3 Turbo-Cyclone compound engines. For long-range services fuel capacity was increased by 600 gal (2,271 lt), taking total capacity to 7,750 gal (29,336 lt). Qantas purchased two, VH-EAO and VH-EAP, as well as two of the final civil 1049H models, VH-EAM and VH-EAN, which first flew on 20 September 1956.

Large piston engine problems

There were losses suffered by both the Boeing Stratocruiser and Lockheed Constellation/Super Constellation in service. As would be expected there were also a far greater number of Super Constellation losses due to the 856 built. Engine problems impacting Stratocruiser accidents were also experienced with Lockheed losses —not always the same failure types but highlighting large piston engine reliability issues. The benefits of the transition to the more reliable jet engine era were major and lasting.

To highlight some of the operational challenges of one aircraft type caused by serious engine problems, we look at Pan American’s experience with the Stratocruiser. This aircraft was the competitor to Qantas trans-Pacific services and a familiar visitor in Sydney. It is indicative of the unpredictability of these large engines powering aircraft such as the Stratocruiser.

Of course, the vast majority Pan American’s scheduled services with this aircraft over the years did operate normally, but unfortunately there were a few significant events with very serious outcomes. In these, there was a mix of triumph, and sadly, tragedy. One respected aviation commentator said the Stratocruiser was a mechanical nightmare. Overall, the aircraft became a challenge to all the airlines operating the Stratocruiser, experiencing an engine failure rate of one in every 158 flights.

One notable case of triumph and survival was faced by one of the regular Pan American B377 visitors to Sydney. In an epic of a successful mid-ocean ditching, on 15 October 1956 Pan American Boeing 377 N90943 Clipper Sovereign of the Skies was operating a service from Honolulu to San Francisco under the command of Captain Richard Ogg. After four and a half hours into the flight, cruising at 21,000 ft (6,401 m), soon after 1:00am the crew was faced by the howling whine of a runaway propeller on the No 1 engine. This propeller problem was a known difficulty experienced previously by other Pan American Stratocruisers.

Unable to maintain height, the propeller finally sheared its driveshaft with the drag unable to be countered. Compounding the problems, the No 4 engine had been steadily losing power resulting in a shutdown with the crew feathering its propeller. With No 2 and 3 engines at increased power the aircraft was able to maintain height just under 1,000 ft (305 m).

Fortunately, the aircraft was able to continue flying until 5:40am with 30 minutes of endurance remaining and passengers placed for the mid-ocean ditching. The ditching had been delayed, consuming fuel to lighten the aircraft, reserving as much fuel as was considered prudent. Aware that a previous Stratocruiser ditching had resulted in the rear fuselage and empennage breaking off, all passengers were moved forward in the cabin, leaving the rear seats empty.

While this drama took place, it was fortunate the US Coast Guard cutter vessel Pontchartrain was on station at Ocean Station November in a position midway between the Hawaiian Islands and San Francisco. Its multi-role function served as a mid-ocean air traffic centre, meteorological information collector, and now an ocean rescue service. Captain Ogg finally placed the aircraft in the open sea at about 90 kt on a layer of fire extinguishing foam laid by Pontchartrain, which also reduced ocean choppiness and indicated the desired ditching path. On alighting in the sea, the rear broke off, which actually assisted evacuation. All 31 on board were rescued before Clipper Sovereign of the Skies finally sank.

Unfortunately, the loss of Sovereign of the Skies through this type of propeller malfunction was not an isolated event. There were several known and suspected similar failures. On 29 April 1952, N1039V Clipper Good Hope crashed in inhospitable and rugged terrain in the Brazilian Amazon region of South America. Some of the area was unexplored, with the possibility of a search party contending with hostile inhabitants and in an area known to be infested with venomous snakes. On May 1, a searching Pan American Curtiss C-46 Commando freighter reported sighting wreckage in dense jungle in Baraja Indian country about 405 km southwest of Carolina, Brazil. A first extensive search expedition was mounted and after a 17-day trek, an investigation team reached the crash site on 16 May after passing through thick jungle with deep gorges and near-vertical cliffs.

A fully equipped second expedition, with the approval and co-operation of the Brazilian Government, conducted by the US Civil Aeronautics Board, reached the crash site on 15 August. At Lago Grange an airstrip was cleared to accommodate transport aircraft, with a 40 km track cut through the jungle to an additional advanced camp closer to the accident site.

Lago Grange is a small Indian village on the Araguaia River south of Araguacema. A base camp had been earlier established at this location after a team had arrived when a Panair do Brasil Consolidated Catalina amphibian was able to alight on a nearby clear stretch of water. Despite difficulties posed by the narrow track, Jeeps were then able cover the distance in six hours to the second base camp. After all this extremely determined effort and despite an extensive search, the No 2 engine was never found. The CAB later concluded, in the absence of other evidence, the probable cause was the No 2 engine and propeller had separated from the aircraft.

The failures continued. On 6 December 1953, N90947 Clipper Queen of the Pacific en route from San Francisco to Tokyo lost a propeller blade, with the out-of-balance unit wrenching the No 4 engine from its mountings. A successful emergency landing was made on Johnson Island 1,300 km southwest of the Hawaiian Islands.

On 26 March 1955, N1032V Clipper United States, on a flight from Seattle-Tacoma Airport, Washington, Honolulu and bound for Sydney, faced a similar problem. After flying for 42 minutes, severe vibrations had been encountered for five to eight seconds followed by the No 3 engine and with its propeller separating from the aircraft. Severe buffeting began with a Mayday signal broadcast on VHF and HF. After encountering serious control problems accompanied with decreasing altitude, the aircraft finally ditched in the ocean 55 km off the Oregon coast with the loss of two crew and two passengers. The survivors were rescued by USS Bayfield from inflatable dinghies after three hours in the ocean. Despite sea conditions which had been calm with little swell, the impact was severe, with life rafts dislodged from storage bins and some seats torn loose.

On 9 November 1957, N90944 Clipper Romance of the Skies disappeared on a flight from San Francisco to Honolulu. After an 11:40am PST departure it had transmitted hourly position reports and the US Coast Guard cutter vessel Minnetonka maintaining Ocean Station November fixed the aircraft’s position 19km east of the ship. At 5:04pm PST the aircraft gave its position 1,650km from Honolulu. This was its last message.

After an extensive search, on 14 November nine bodies with some floating debris were found by aircraft from the USS Philippine Sea 1,520km east of Honolulu, about 237km northeast of the estimated point of impact. One month earlier this aircraft had arrived in Sydney, operating the regular Pan American trans-Pacific service from San Francisco to Sydney.

The military equivalent of the Stratocruiser, a Military Air Transport Service C-97, experienced an engine problem on 8 August 1957 on flight from Travis Air Force Base near San Francisco to Hickam Field, Honolulu. During the flight after climbing to a new en route altitude of 16,000 ft (4,877 m), a runaway propeller on the No 1 engine sounded. Aware of threat posed by the No 1 engine, as a precaution, the No 2 engine was shut down. This proved a sound decision when the propeller from the No 1 engine eventually separated and cut one metre of a feathered blade on the No 2 engine, additionally damaging the No 2 nacelle and engine mounting. Reduced to the power of both starboard engines, emergency measures were put in place.

To conserve fuel, the air conditioning was shut down, and the destination was changed to Hilo, about 185km closer than Hickam. The destination was estimated in five hours with 5:04 hours of fuel remaining. A safe landing was made in Hilo after a tense flight with aircraft commander Major Samuel Tyson subsequently awarded a second bar to his DFC for his determination and safe airmanship.

There were other Stratocruiser losses sustained by Pan American and other airlines that were not attributable to engine issues, but other causes such as aircrew error.

Of the Pan American Stratocruiser experience, highly regarded airline author R. E. G. Davies wrote in Airlines of the United States Since 1914, “Although the Stratocruiser suffered certain teething troubles, in company with every other major type of the period, its record of service was good enough to sustain it for many years, outliving other rivals. Its operating costs were slightly higher than the Constellation or the Douglas four-engined types, but its cocktail bar was so popular with the passengers that the airlines were loath to retire it.”

On 15 November 1954, Pan American commenced an eastbound non-stop trans-Atlantic service with Stratocruisers with extra fuel tanks. The last scheduled Pan American flight of the type took place on 27 November 1960 from Djakarta to Honolulu. By December, jet aircraft were operating on most of the airline’s routes.

The family of Lockheed Constellation/Super Constellation and military versions also faced a variety of problems followed by losses of aircraft due to engine problems. Several aircraft were lost due to engine failures/fires while others disappeared, some without trace. The theme established with the Pratt & Whitney Wasp Major was echoed on several occasions with the Wright engine.

Like other major airlines, Qantas was not immune to these problems experienced by Super Constellations powered by the Wright Turbo Compound 972TC18-DA3 engine. On 14 October 1959, Lockheed L1049G-82-118 VH-EAO Southern Aurora was on a flight from San Francisco to New York when the number four engine began to run rough. The engine was shut down and an attempt was made to feather the propeller and preparations were made for an emergency landing at Lovelock Field, Nevada. To lighten the load, fuel was jettisoned. During the approach for landing, the propeller of the failed engine fell off. A successful landing was made without injuries to the occupants or further damage to the aircraft.

On 24 August 1960, Lockheed L1049E-55 VH-EAC Southern Wave was operating the regular Johannesburg to Sydney service via Mauritius and the Cocos Islands. During the take-off from Plaisance Airport, Mauritius, the number three engine failed and an attempt was made to abandon the take-off. The aircraft could not be halted before it ran beyond the runway and hit an obstruction. All occupants were evacuated in 90 seconds with minor injuries sustained by six passengers. The aircraft was subsequently destroyed by fire.

The unpredictability of the Wright engine was highlighted with the problems encountered by the flight of VH-EAA Southern Sea on 5 March 1958 from Adelaide to London via the Cocos Islands, Mauritius and Johannesburg. Under the command of Captain R. F. Uren, the aircraft was carrying Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth, The Queen Mother. The aircraft faced an extensive delay with engine problems in Mauritius.

At a presentation in Sydney to the Aviation Historical Society of Australia some years later, Captain Uren reflected on his experience with Super Constellation engines. He said during his final year with the aircraft flying on the Kangaroo Route linking Sydney to London, he was faced with engine malfunctions on every flight. It was a challenging time for both the airlines and crews coping with these difficulties. Several other civil and military aircraft were powered by the Wright Turbo-Compound family of engines, some which were the Douglas DC-7 and A-1 Skyraider, Canadair CL-28 Argus and Lockheed P-2 Neptune.

The most serious accident in Australia sustained by a Wright DA3-powered aircraft was the tragic loss of an RAAF Neptune. On 4 February 1959, RAAF Lockheed P2V-5/P-2E Neptune A89-308 had been engaged in ECM trials. The captain had been authorised to conduct feathering above 4,000 ft (1,219 m). When returning to Richmond, a fire broke out in the starboard engine with the captain forced to make an emergency landing. However, the starboard wing broke away at a height under 100 ft (30 m), with the aircraft coming down inverted and exploding on impact with the ground at Cornwallis — on the banks of the Hawkesbury River — at 1118 hours, about 1.5 miles (2.4km) north of RAAF Richmond. The eight members of the crew were tragically lost. The subsequent investigation indicated the most probable cause of the fire was the failure of the power recovery turbine wheel, resulting in the severing of a fuel line which continued flowing under pressure. A sequence of events followed culminating in the failure of the starboard wing rear spar. The Neptune did not have a fire extinguisher in the engine.

Overall, when you consider these selected isolated areas of problems associated with these large engines, you observe some of challenges which arose unexpectedly for civil and military operators. On a percentage basis the number of failures were perhaps modest, but nonetheless that failure rate would not be acceptable today. The vastly improved reliability of modern jet engines reinforces the huge progress in aircraft engine technology. It set the foundation for successive generations of transport aircraft powered by jet engines, embracing new technologies and materials offering increased reliability, pollution reduction, noise decrease and improved economics.